Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and Turkey on Friday signed a joint defense agreement in Mecca, forming a defense alliance between three Sunni allies of the United States, concerned about the large-scale regional escalation that has led to missile attacks on oil exporters in the Persian Gulf. Iran and its allies have been attacking Saudi Arabia and other Persian Gulf states, as well as blocking their energy supplies since February 28, when the United States and Israel struck Iran, a significant escalation after years of regional instability.
The agreement aims to strengthen collective deterrence against any aggression and stipulates that an armed attack on any of the three countries will be considered an attack on all, according to a joint statement. Although the document does not contain specific obligations for each party within the “Mecca Joint Defense Agreement,” it states that the pact is aimed at strengthening collective security and promoting peace, stability, and security in the region and beyond.
“The pact includes provisions for collective defense. It is purely defensive in nature and provides for mutual support exclusively for defensive purposes,” a Turkish official said. He added that the agreement is not directed against any specific country, is open to other countries in the region, and does not cancel or replace existing bilateral or multilateral agreements. Meanwhile, the three countries are increasingly concerned about the growing military activity of Israel and Iran, while their long-time ally, the United States, is trying to contain the regional crisis.
Powerful political symbolism
“The political symbolism of the summit is significant. The three most influential states in the Muslim world have gathered at a time of heightened uncertainty, demonstrating the readiness of regional and middle powers for closer security coordination,” said Abdulaziz Sager, head of the Gulf Research Center. He added: “If the trilateral format is institutionalized and turns into practical cooperation, it could enhance the diplomatic and defense weight of the three countries and contribute to the formation of a more independent regional security architecture.”
Turkey has the second-largest army in NATO. Saudi Arabia, the most powerful state in the Persian Gulf, is home to the holiest sites in Islam and one of the world’s leading oil exporters, while Pakistan remains the only Muslim state with nuclear weapons. Pakistani Prime Minister Shehbaz Sharif, along with army chief Asim Munir, performed the Umrah pilgrimage in Mecca before the arrival of Turkish President Tayyip Erdogan. They met with Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, whose country has repeatedly been attacked by Iran, as well as its Houthi allies in Yemen and Shiite militias in Iraq since the start of the war on February 28.
The conflict has also undermined the security of Riyadh‘s allies in the Persian Gulf and nearly paralyzed shipping through the Strait of Hormuz, through which about one-fifth of the world’s energy supplies passed before the war. The pact is the result of nearly a year of negotiations, which Reuters reported on as early as January. The Middle East has been engulfed in conflicts for nearly three years after the Hamas attack on Israel on October 7, 2023, and almost every country in the region has experienced cross-border attacks, missile or drone strikes. Israel has waged war in Gaza, invaded southern Lebanon, seized territories in Syria, and conducted two air campaigns against Iran. Tehran has attacked U.S. bases and civilian infrastructure in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, Jordan, and Israel.
Pact builds on long-standing military ties
Although Turkey and Pakistan, located on the periphery of the Middle East, have avoided large-scale direct attacks, both countries seek to reduce tensions that threaten their security and economy. For Saudi Arabia, the consequences of years of conflict in the region have been even more serious: they threaten oil exports, ambitious development plans, and raise doubts about the reliability of U.S. security guarantees. According to a senior Saudi official, the kingdom expects coordinated attacks from Iraqi militias and Houthis supported by Iran, which explains Riyadh‘s desire to expand its alliance ties. The signing of the agreement in Mecca, the holiest site in Islam, gives the pact additional symbolic weight.
Mansoor Ahmed of the Center for Strategic and Defense Studies at the Australian National University noted that Pakistan and Turkey have powerful defense industries, while Saudi Arabia can provide significant investment in defense technologies. At the same time, according to Ahmed, the agreement is unlikely to include a nuclear component, as Pakistan’s nuclear deterrent potential is focused on countering possible threats from India. Pakistan has provided training and technical assistance to Saudi military personnel for decades, and Turkey and Pakistan cooperate in naval technology and pilot training. In 2023, Riyadh agreed to purchase Turkish drones — in Ankara, this deal was called the largest export contract in the country’s defense industry. According to Reuters, Pakistan subsequently deployed about 8,000 military personnel, fighter jets, drones, and an air defense system in the kingdom, and also intensified security cooperation with the Persian Gulf countries. In July, the agency reported the start of negotiations between Pakistan and Kuwait on a new pact in exchange for energy cooperation and investments. The office of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs did not provide comments.
